Domestic Workers in the Republic of South Africa and Surrounding Countries

Domestic Workers in the Republic of South Africa and Surrounding Countries:
An Annotated Bibliography

Compiled by Rachel Parsons, April 2004

This bibliography primarily contains literature published on domestic workers in the Republic of South Africa. Most of the literature emerged in the late 1980s when the domestic workers union was at its peak, bringing international attention to their struggles. A new wave of publications on domestic workers has just emerged in the last decade, their situation once again gaining attention from the international community. With the transition to the new democracy, the social and economic situation of domestic workers becomes especially pertinent to look at during the birth pangs of the new country. A country can be judged on the treatment of its poorest members, and by looking at those at the bottom of the social ladder in South Africa-domestic workers-it is apparent that this country has a long way to go before it realizes its promise of being a democracy. The bibliography is meant to give a broad view on the literature available and the lived realities of domestic workers in South Africa. Literature from surrounding countries in Southern Africa is also listed, as a basis for comparison. Looking at the situation of domestic workers addressed many matrices of oppression-sexism, racism, and classism, among others-and their intersections.

Resources Arranged by Country (49)

SOUTH AFRICA (42)

Berger, Iris
1992. Threads of Solidarity: Women in South African Industry, 1900-1980. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

This book takes a broad look at gender and industrialization, women in unions, and the rise of a new working class. Domestic workers are discussed at length: employment patterns, forced removals, marital status, attempts at unionization, and race and employment. It also looks at the changes in the profession with unionization and during the period of the 1970s, with strikes and organizing.

Bothma, Martin and Celeste Campher
2003. "Minimum Wages for Domestic Workers: A Comprehensive Analysis." Acta Academica 35(1):190-205.

"This article investigates the impact of a minimum wage for domestic workers on employment levels. A comparative analysis of two surveys undertaken in a Bloemfontein suburb challenges the Minister's statement that the newly announced minimum wage for domestic workers in South Africa is 'not only affordable but very realistic.' The analysis indicates that the demand for domestic workers is decreasing and that minimum wages could aggravate the situation. The wages of domestic workers vary not only between areas, but also within areas. Therefore, if job losses occur, rural and full-time domestic workers will be most affected. COSATU's proposal that minimum wages should not be set according to geographical differentials, but according to work performed, seems meritorious." (quoted from article abstract)

Cock, Jaclyn
1989. Maids and Madams: Domestic Workers Under Apartheid. London: Women's Press.

A revision of her longer work of the same title in 1980, Maids and Madams takes a look at the lives of domestic workers in South Africa under the reign of apartheid, including the conditions of service, relations with employers, self-perception of the workers, and the employers themselves. An important work that explores the oppression of women by women, it draws attention to the story of the poorest of the poor, examining the race, class, and gender dynamics that posit domestic workers in their societal position.

1988. "Trapped Workers: The Case of Domestic Workers in South Africa." In Patriarchy and Class: African Women in the Home and Workforce, Sharon B. Stichter and Jane L. Parpart, eds. Boulder & London: Westview Press, pp. 205-219.

This chapter looks at the way that domestic workers are "trapped" in their societal place due to apartheid laws, sexism, racism, and the power dynamics within their employers' homes. Pass and influx controls, Bantustans, economic necessity, and extreme poverty are all discussed here. Much attention is paid to the exploitation of black women by white women. Cock asserts that domestic labor does not exist specifically for economic reasons, but as an important social status marker that has been normalized within white South Africa.

Cole, Melissa
1992. "Inthuthuko Means That We Are Going Forward: Hearing the Voices of Domestic Workers in South Africa." Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 2(1):61-110.

"An account of the lives of domestic workers in Johannesburg, South Africa: their working hours, the wages they receive, the food and accommodations of live-in workers, the separation from their families, their relationships with their employers, their experiences with violence and harassment, the cultural and social status of African women, and their hopes for change." (annotation from Colombia Journal of Gender and Law archives)

Cronje, E.
2002. "Story of the Life Satisfaction of a Group of Retired Domestic Workers in South Africa: A Qualitative Study." Social Work 38(3):224-238.

Abstract unavailable.

De Villiers, Florence
1989. "From Domestic Worker to Head of the Domestic Workers' Union." In Lives of Courage: Women for a New South Africa, Diane E.H. Russell, ed. New York: Basic Books, pp. 168-177.

The story of Florence De Villiers is the story of a woman who grew up as a "child of slaves" to become a leading labor organizer for domestic workers. De Villiers identifies some of the struggle that workers faced, including fighting against sexual harassment, dealing with racism, and fighting to be part of a union. A story of organizing and resistance from every possible angle, this chapter is a good primary account of the experiences of a union organizer of domestic workers.

Delport, Elizabeth
1994. "Domestic Workers-Light at the End of the Tunnel." In South African Women Today, Margaret Lessing, ed. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman.

Abstract unavailable.

1992. "Women as Domestic Workers in Southern Africa." Presented at the First International Conference on Women in Africa and the African Diaspora, July 13-18, Nsukka, Nigeria. Indianapolis, IN: Association of African Women Scholars, Indiana University, Women's Studies Program. Volume 7.

Abstract unavailable.

Department of Labour, South Africa
2001. "On the Release of a Report About Wages and Conditions of Employment for Domestic Workers."

This media statement talks about the different laws that have been applied to domestic workers since the fall of apartheid, including the Labour Relations Act and the Unemployment Insurance Bill. The report releases the findings of an investigation done by the Department of Labour into the minimum wages of domestic workers, and finds that workers are not being paid enough and are getting no benefits. The proposals from the Department to the government on remedying this situation are included in the conclusion.

Fish, Jennifer Natalie
2003. "Domestic Workers and Democratization: Challenging the Limits of Transformation in the New South Africa." PhD Dissertation, American University.

Fish's dissertation asks the question: How has the institution of domestic work changed in post-apartheid South Africa? Her paper is based primarily on field notes and personal interviews with workers in Cape Town. Her analysis is done through a feminist framework intersecting race, class, gender, and political location. Fish contends that until domestic workers' rights are recognized, South Africa will not fully realize its goal of a democratic government.

Flint, S.
1988. "The Protection of Domestic Workers in South Africa: A Comparative Study." Industrial Law Journal 9:1-15+.

Abstract unavailable.

Flood, Patrick, Clive Gibson, and Rodney Gibson
2002. You and Your Domestic Worker. Cape Town, South Africa: Ampersand Press.

This guide, written for employers, details the new domestic worker laws that have been passed in South Africa. It includes an outline of the legislation, definition of a domestic worker, conditions of service, and other important information, such as termination of employment benefits and good management practices. By no means comprehensive, this is the most widely available handbook for employers in South Africa.

Francis, S.
1999. International Maid of Mystery. Cape Town and Johannesburg: David Phillips Publishers.

The latest in a collection of comic strips by Francis, this comic gives the reader a glimpse of the image of domestic workers portrayed in pop culture (there is also a television series of the same name). Its comical representation of relations between the maid and her madam shows the normalization of the institution of domestic work that is the backbone of South African society.

Ginsburg, Rebecca Ann
2001. "At Home with Apartheid: The Cultural Landscapes of Suburban Johannesburg, 1960-1976." PhD Dissertation, University of California-Berkeley.

Ginsburg examines the rules and norms that Johannesburg's middle-class suburban employers impose on their African employees. It is an investigation into the ways that these employers act to keep their workers "in their place." Oral interviews are used to explore the cultural landscapes that are created in these homes, as well as the resistance of the workers to their exploitation.

Gordon, Sue
1985. A Talent for Tomorrow: Life Stories of South African Servants. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.

Named as the most comprehensive personal history of South African domestic workers ever published, Gordon's book analogizes 24 life stories of domestics in South Africa. Though lacking in analysis, the work is an important contribution to the literature on domestic workers in S.A. The stories are told using the women's voices, giving the reader a window directly into the everyday lives of the domestic workers.

1974. Domestic Workers: A Handbook for Housewives. Johannesburg: South African Institute of Race Relations.

The third edition of the book, this "handbook" gives instruction to potential employers who are looking for a domestic worker. Including sections on everything from cultural background to wages to dealing with pass laws, it is a good illustration of the mindset and practices of white employers under apartheid in South Africa.

Grossman, Jonathan
2004. "The Denigrated Compassion and Vision of the Backyard: South African Domestic Workers in the New Global Village." Paper, February. University of Cape Town.

This paper takes a new look at the idea of "being a voice for the silenced." Grossman takes the instance of silence by domestic workers and shows that it is not a sign of ignorance, but a sign of knowing and resistance. Grossman also points out that the lessons that many activists need to learn in the fight for global justice is found in the silence and actions of those who are thought of as the bottom of society. This paper includes the biographical story of a domestic worker, and her silences and struggles, as evidence for his argument.

2001. "Proposals for Minimum Wages and Conditions of Employment for Domestic Workers." Paper, October. University of Cape Town.

This submission calls for the change into law of protections for South African domestic workers. There are nine proposals given by Grossman to change what he identifies as the unequal power relations in employment between the workers and employers. He states that the minimum wage proposed by the South African government is grossly inadequate, and advocates not only for higher pay, but legislation that would allow for a greater amount of integrity and comfort in the lives of the workers.

2000. "Workers and Transition: An Investigation of Domestic Workers' Experience of Change and Continuity." Report to the National Research Foundation.

This investigation is looking at the concrete changes in conditions of domestic workers' lives with the passing of the revised Basic Conditions of Employment Act of 1998. The project is focused on a series of meetings of domestic workers in Sea Point, Cape Town, and East London. The study found that there was evidence of widespread and systematic non-compliance with the laws. Most of the changes were in attitudes instead of material conditions. Enforcement practices and conditions of labor are also explored.

1999. "Submission on Domestic Workers." To COSATU, September. Commission Investigating the Future of Trade Unions.

This submission is looking at the position of domestic workers in the labor market and the shortcomings and challenges of the organizing that was going on at the time. It names specific problems within the union, such as funding and lack of trained organizers, as well as a bit of the history of unionism. It also includes Grossman's proposals on the minimum standards needed for protective legislation.

1996. "'My Wish is That My Kids Will Try to Understand One Day': Domestic Workers in South Africa Communicating the Experience of Abuse, Resistance, and Hope." Presented at 9th International Oral History Conference, Göteborg, Sweden, March.

This paper takes excerpts from a book that was written by Grossman collecting oral histories of the everyday lives of domestic workers in South Africa. The book shows that domestic workers do not enjoy the new freedoms they were promised under the new government. The stories are gathered beginning in the mid-1980s, and Grossman uses "then and now" comparisons to show the stagnation of progress in the workers' situation.

Hickson, Joyce and Martin Strous
1993. "The Plight of Black South African Women Domestics: Providing the Ultraexploited with Psychologically Empowering Mental Health Services." Journal of Black Studies 24(1):109-122.

This article gives the reader a brief description of the social position of domestic workers and the material inadequacies they face both inside and outside of their employers' homes. It describes the psychological place of the domestic worker as "non-human in the eyes of their employer," and the effects of that mentality. The issue of mental health services for domestic workers is discussed, placed in the already inadequate frame of South African mental health services. This article gives a psychological perspective on the sociological impacts of oppression. The target audience is mental health professionals, and recommendations are made in order to remedy the problems discussed above.

Human Rights Committee of South Africa
2000. "Domestic Workers." HRC Quarterly Review: Labour Rights are Human Rights June:61-73.

This report outlines the state of domestic workers in South Africa at the time of writing. Drawing upon documents such as the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, UDHR, and CEDAW Convention, it shows the lack of implementation of these documents in the new South Africa. At the end of the report, recommendations are made for formalization of the institution of domestic work in order to end the extreme exploitation of the workers.

Kedijang, M.
1990. The Best Kept Secret: Violence Against Domestic Workers. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand, Project for the Study of Violence.

Abstract unavailable.

Kgobetsi, Siballi
2000. "Tale of a Domestic Worker." In Poets Against War, Violence, and Nuclear Weapons (PAWN) presents, Poetically Speaking, Words Can Come Easy: An Anthology of Contemporary African Poetry, Siballi E.I. Kgobetsi, ed. Windhoek, Namibia: Gamsberg Macmillan, pg. 59.

This piece is a poem about the position of domestic workers in South African society.

Khan, Quarraisha
1992 "The Health of Domestic Workers in South Africa." In Women and Health in Africa, Meredith Turshen, ed. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, pp. 79-88.

Khan looks at the day-to-day conditions of domestic workers' lives and relates them to their health. The many occupational hazards are explored, such as stress-related disorders and injury from monotonous daily activities or harsh cleaning agents. The health hazards resulting from the poverty in which they live are also discussed-conditions of squatter camps, vulnerability to rape and theft, the double burden of housework for employers and their own families. The chapter ends with a look ahead to reform measures that can be taken to change the domestic workers' situation for the better.

Lazar, Eva Doreen
2000. "'Ain't I a Citizen?' A Study of Consciousness, Resistance, and Identity in the Domestic Service Sector in Post-Apartheid South Africa." PhD Dissertation, Queen's University at Kingston (Canada).

"This dissertation provides first a critical analysis of the current epistemological and ontological accounts of the domestic service sector. Second, it proposes a new theoretical framework of accommodation and resistance for examining this sector, drawing upon both cross-national literatures related to slavery, as well as a number of neo-Gramscian concepts. Third, within this new framework, this dissertation presents the findings of dozens of interviews with domestic workers, employers, government officials, union officials, and church workers, carried out in the Johannesburg region in 1997. Finally, primary data is integrated with a textual analysis of the new labour legislation in South Africa. The findings of this dissertation suggest that while domestic workers remain on the margins of South Africa's new social contract, there is evidence that a movement towards transformative politics in this sector may be possible in the near future. (abstract taken directly from http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/NQ52832)

Le Roux, Tessa
1999. "'Home is Where the Children Are': A Qualitative Study of Migratory Domestic Workers in Mmotla Village, South Africa." In Gender, Migration, and Domestic Service, Janet Henshall Momsen, ed. New York: Routledge, pp. 183-194.

This article contains short case studies of domestic workers, ages 23-39, in a small village 50 km north of Pretoria. It shares the reality of these women's lives and addresses the concerns that they have as live-in domestics, away from their families. It asks important questions about independence and women's liberation both through and from domestic work. It is a bit lacking in feminist analysis, but nevertheless, a good information piece.

McNeil, Colleen
1989. "Contradictory Forces in the Domestic Worker's Struggle: The Significance of Union Church and Culture in the Lives of Domestic Workers in Durban." MA Thesis, University of Natal, Durban, South Africa.

Abstract unavailable.

Makosana, Isobel Z.
1989. "IZWI: The Working Conditions of African Domestic Workers in Cape Town in the 1980s." MA Thesis, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.

Abstract unavailable.

Mandela, Makaziwe P.
1989. "A Study of the Relationship Between Work and Family Among Black Female Domestics in the United States and South Africa." MA Thesis, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts.

Abstract unavailable.

Matlanyane Sexwale, Bunie M.
1993. "Violence Against Women: The Case of South African Domestic Workers." In Breaking the Silence: Women Against Violence, W.K. State, ed. Kano, Nigeria: El-Kafiu Prints Company, pp. 38-57.

"This paper focuses on violence against black women domestic workers whose lives spell the centre of convergence for gender, race, class, and national oppression-underwritten by their legal abnegation. A brief historical background to the violence that surrounds domestic workers, their experiences of different forms of violence are described mainly through their own narration, and their action against the violence." (abstract taken from chapter introduction)

Mohutsioa-Makhudud, Yvonne N.K.
1989. "The Psychological Effects of Apartheid on the Mental Health of Black South African Women Domestics." Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 17(3):134-142.

The author of this article describes the relationship between domestic worker and employer as master-servant, regulated by social norms, legal measures, and racial-economic situations. The psychological effects of apartheid on the mental health of black women are explored at length. By looking at this, deeper insight into the effects of prejudice, segregation, and discrimination by the apartheid government on all people can be viewed. The aim of the article is to familiarize counselors working in South Africa with an understanding of the harsh realities that domestic workers face in their everyday lives.

Møller, Valerie
1984. Images of Retirement: An Exploratory Study Among Black Domestic and Service Workers. Durban: Centre for Applied Social Sciences, University of Natal.

The purpose of this book was to explore the extent to which elderly black workers were influenced by a fast-changing society. The author picked women domestic workers specifically because of their lack of social mobility and low societal status because they were perceived as the least likely social group to adopt modern values. The central question of the study was whether or not the women took their modernity, learned at their place of employment, back with them to their traditional places of origin. This article offers statistics along with narratives from domestic workers on their perceptions of work and growing old in South Africa.

Romero, Patricia
1998. Profiles in Diversity; Women in the New South Africa. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.

This book is a collection of oral histories from women in South Africa after independence. It is important to the literature on domestic workers because it situates them within a wider context of women, provides insight into other women's perceptions of them, and also speaks largely to the omittance of these women from mainstream consciousness. Romero compiles stories from many different races of women to produce this important volume of female narratives in the new South Africa.

South African Communist Party
2003. Red October Campaign Mobilises Domestic Workers in KwaZulu Natal. Johannesburg: SACP, October 31.

Announcement of rally to mobilize domestic workers in KwaZulu Natal. States the problems the workers face and the effort that will be made to organize them and educate them about their rights.

Van Der Westhuizen, Marinda
1998. "Routine Activity and Rational Choice with Specific References to the Victimization of Black, Female Domestic Workers in South Africa." Acta Criminologic 11(2):80-86.

Abstract unavailable.

Walker, Cherryl
1982. Women and Resistance in South Africa. London: Onyx Press.

This book traces the development of a women's movement in South Africa from 1910 to the early 1960s. Domestic workers are discussed at some length. This study is different than many of the others because it presents domestic workers as agents of change instead of victims. From their participation in the pass protests to everyday acts of resistance, Walker shows the strong nature of the unappreciated women who build the backbone of South African society.

Workinfo.com
2004. "South Africa's Basic Conditions of Employment Act, Chapter Four: Particulars of Employment and Remuneration." http://www.workinfo.com/free/Sub_for_legres/data/bcea1998.htm#CHAPTER4, February 16.

This website gives the full content of the Basic Conditions of Employment Act. Chapter Four is of particular interest because when it was first passed, domestic workers were excluded from this chapter.

Zlotnick, Caron
1992. "The Courage to Survive: Violence in the Lives of Domestic Workers in South Africa." Paper Presented at the First International Conference on Women in Africa and the African Diaspora, Nsukka, Nigeria, July 13-18.

Abstract unavailable.

NAMIBIA (2)

Legal Assistance Center
1996. The Living and Working Conditions of Domestic Workers in Namibia. Windhoek, Namibia: Gender Research Project, Legal Assistance Centre: Social Sciences Division, Multi-Disciplinary Research Centre, University of Namibia.

This study looks at the history of domestic work in Namibia from the 19th century, and the place of domestic work in society since independence. More of a straightforward report than an analytic study, the Legal Assistance Center traces legislation relating to domestic workers throughout Namibia's history, as well as trade unionism and terms and conditions of employment. The latter part of the study presents data from the mid-90s addressing the previous topics, as well as demographics, knowledge and awareness of rights, and remuneration.

Østreng, Dorte
1997. Domestic Workers' Daily Lives in Post-Apartheid Namibia. Windhoek, Namibia: Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit.

This thesis looks at the daily life of domestic workers four years after Namibian independence. It looks at the factors of why domestic workers are so low in social status, to what degree changes have taken place since independence, and why only a small level of change has occurred. It addresses the role of South African apartheid in Namibia's labor force, the passage of Labour Acts and their effects, and the impact of the union on workers' lives.

SWAZILAND (2)

Miles, Miranda
1999. "Working in the City: The Case of Migrant Women in Swaziland's Domestic Service Sector." In Gender, Migration and Domestic Service, Janet Henshall Momsen, ed. London: Routledge, pp. 195-213.

This article explores the factors of female migration to the urban centers as domestic workers in the postcolonial state of Swaziland. It places a lot of weight on the land-reform programs of the Swazi government, and the need for two-income households in the capitalist Swaziland. The article includes gender analysis of land property and inter-family dynamics.

Mkhonza, Sarah
1996. "Narratives of Domestic Workers and the Role of Language in their Experiences in Swaziland." PhD Dissertation, Michigan State University.

This dissertation examines the place of domestic workers in both colonial and post-colonial Swaziland. By analyzing language use, Mkhonza draws conclusions about power relations between worker and employer. Structures like questions and commands exchanged between worker and employer are examined for issues of power. The primary finding of the research is that the employers have the power in the relationship, and that the workers view themselves as objects to be controlled in their employers' homes.

TANZANIA (1)

Bujra, Janet M.
2000. Serving Class: Masculinity and the Feminisation of Domestic Service in Tanzania. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press for the International African Institute.

This book looks at the place of domestic servants in Tanzanian society, and its transformation, from a mostly male profession in the 1980s to now, when more women are taking up domestic service jobs. "Each chapter problematizes the question of domestic service in a different way-as colonial discourse, gender dislocation, labour migration, personal narrative, class statement, household politics, and political struggle." It examines the causes and effects of the feminization of labor, including creating competition between men and women, and the social and economic transformation of the rural areas. (quotation taken from Introduction)

ZAMBIA (1)

Hansen, Karen Tranberg
1989. Distant Companions: Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985. London and Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Hansen's work gives a description and analysis of continuity and change in domestic service in Zambia from 1900-1985. It examines the origins of domestic service, the everyday life of the workers, and the relationships between employer and employee. The construction of gender roles is also addressed now that women are entering the domestic service force in Zambia.

ZIMBABWE (1)

Clarke, Duncan G.
1974. Domestic Servants in Rhodesia: The Economics of Masters and Servants. Gwelo, Rhodesia: Mambo Press.

Clarke's book looks at the position of domestic workers in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Macro- and micro-economic factors are analyzed here, as well as the impact of the Masters and Servants Act and the possibility for reform. Though the political and social landscape of Zimbabwe has changed considerably since the time of publishing, it is a good historical piece.